Nanosubmarines powered by light

Nano-scale submarines built from 244 atoms and capable of moving at 2 cm per second have been demonstrated by Rice University.

Credit: Loïc Samuel/Rice University

In a study published by Nano Letters, scientists from Rice University in Texas describe how they built and tested nanoscale submarines, which are able to move with incredible speed. The single-molecule, 244-atom submersibles each have a motor powered by ultraviolet light. With each full revolution the motor's tail-like propeller drives the sub forwards a distance of 18 nanometres (nm). However, the motors run at over a million RPM, giving a top speed of nearly two centimetres (0.8 inches) per second: a breakneck pace on the molecular scale.

"These are the fastest-moving molecules ever seen in solution," says chemist James Tour, one of the study authors.

While they can't be steered yet, the study has proved that molecular motors are powerful enough to drive the sub-10-nanometre craft through solutions of moving molecules of about the same size.

From a nano-scale point of view, "this is akin to a person walking across a basketball court with 1,000 people throwing basketballs at him," Tour said.

Tour's group has extensive experience with molecular machines. A decade ago, his lab demonstrated nanocars – single-molecule cars with four wheels, axles and independent suspensions that could be "driven" across a surface. Over the years, many research groups have created microscopic machines featuring motors – but most have either used or generated toxic chemicals. A motor conceived in the last decade by Dutch researchers proved suitable for the Rice submersibles, which were produced in a 20-step chemical synthesis.

"These motors are well-known and used for different things," said Victor García-López, lead author and Rice graduate student. "But we were the first to propose they can be used to propel nanocars – and now submersibles."

Credit: Victor García-López/Rice University

The motors, which operate more like a bacteria's flagellum than a propeller, complete each revolution in four steps. When excited by light, the double bond that holds the rotor to the body becomes a single bond, allowing it to rotate a quarter step. As the motor seeks to return to a lower energy state, it jumps adjacent atoms for another quarter turn. This process repeats as long as the light is on. Once built, the team turned to Gufeng Wang at North Carolina State University to measure how well the nanosubs moved.

"We had used scanning tunnelling microscopy and fluorescence microscopy to watch our cars drive, but that wouldn't work for the submersibles," explained Tour. "They would drift out of focus pretty quickly."

The North Carolina team sandwiched a drop of diluted acetonitrile liquid containing a few nanosubs between two slides, then used a custom confocal fluorescence microscope to hit it from opposite sides with both ultraviolet light (for the motor) and a red laser (for the pontoons). The microscope's laser defined a column of light in the solution, in which tracking occurred, García-López said: "That way, the NC State team could guarantee it was analysing only one molecule at a time."

The team hopes future nanosubs will be able to carry cargoes for medical and other purposes. "There's a path forward," García-López said. "This is the first step, and we've proven the concept. Now we need to explore opportunities and potential applications."

Self-healing sensor brings 'electronic skin' closer to reality

Scientists have developed a self-healing, flexible sensor that mimics the self-healing properties of human skin. Cuts or scratches to the sensors "heal" themselves in less than one day.

Flexible sensors have been developed for use in consumer electronics, robotics, health care, and space flight. Future possible applications could include the creation of ‘electronic skin’ and prosthetic limbs that allow wearers to ‘feel’ changes in their environments.

One problem with current flexible sensors, however, is that they can be easily scratched and otherwise damaged, potentially destroying their functionality. Researchers in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa (Israel), who were inspired by the healing properties in human skin, have developed materials that can be integrated into flexible devices to “heal” incidental scratches or damaging cuts that might compromise device functionality. The advancement, using a new kind of synthetic polymer (a polymer is a large molecule composed of many repeated smaller molecules) has self-healing properties that mimic human skin, which means that e-skin “wounds” can quickly “heal” themselves in remarkably short time – less than a day.

A paper outlining the characteristics and applications of the unique, self-healing sensor has been published in the current issue of Advanced Materials.

“The vulnerability of flexible sensors used in real-world applications calls for the development of self-healing properties similar to how human skin heals,” said self-healing sensor co-developer Professor Hossam Haick. “Accordingly, we have developed a complete, self-healing device in the form of a bendable and stretchable chemiresistor where every part – no matter where the device is cut or scratched – is self-healing.”

The new sensor is comprised of a self-healing substrate, high conductivity electrodes, and molecularly modified gold nanoparticles. “The gold particles on top of the substrate and between the self-healing electrodes are able to “heal” cracks that could completely disconnect electrical connectivity,” explains Prof. Haick.

Once healed, the polymer substrate of the self-healing sensor demonstrates sensitivity to volatile organic compounds (VOCs), with detection capability down to tens of parts per billion. It also demonstrates superior healability at the extreme temperatures of -20 degrees C to 40 degrees C. This property, said the researchers, can extend applications of the self-healing sensor to areas of the world with extreme climates. From sub-freezing cold to equatorial heat, the self-healing sensor is environment-stable.

The healing polymer works quickest, said the researchers, when the temperature is between 0 degrees C and 10 degrees C, when moisture condenses and is then absorbed by the substrate. Condensation makes the substrate swell, allowing the polymer chains to begin to flow freely and, in effect, begin “healing.” Once healed, the nonbiological, chemiresistor still has high sensitivity to touch, pressure and strain, which the researchers tested in demanding stretching and bending tests.

Another unique feature is that the electrode resistance increases after healing and can survive 20 times or more cutting/healing cycles than prior to healing. Essentially, healing makes the self-healing sensor even stronger. The researchers noted in their paper that “the healing efficiency of this chemiresistor is so high that the sensor survived several cuttings at random positions.”

The researchers are currently experimenting with carbon-based self-healing composites and self-healing transistors.

“The self-healing sensor raises expectations that flexible devices might someday be self-administered, which increases their reliability,” explained co-developer Dr. Tan-Phat Huynh, also of the Technion, whose work focuses on the development of self-healing electronic skin. “One day, the self-healing sensor could serve as a platform for biosensors that monitor human health using electronic skin.”

The ExoMars rover touches down on Mars

ExoMars is a joint mission between ESA and the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) which is divided into two parts. The first phase of the mission is launched in 2016, arriving nine months later. This consists of an orbiter – ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter – which maps sources of methane and other gases on Mars, to determine the best location for a rover to study. It also contains a static demonstration module to prove the landing site is viable.

The second phase is launched in 2018, arriving in 2019 with the ExoMars rover built by ESA. This lands on Mars using a "sky crane" system, in which four rockets slow the descent once the main parachute has been deployed.

The rover's primary objective is to determine any signs of microbial life on Mars, past or present. It is equipped with a drill that bores down two meters below the surface to retrieve samples. These are transferred to a miniature laboratory inside the rover. This contains a sensor for biological molecules, infrared and X-ray spectroscopes that catalog the mineralogical makeup of the sample, together with imaging devices.

Located in the drill structure is another infrared spectrometer which studies the inside surface of the bore hole. ExoMars uses ground-penetrating radar to search for ideal locations at which to drill. The mission is almost entirely automated, as the rover uses imaging cameras to create a 3D map of the terrain in order to avoid obstacles. It has a lifespan of six months, travelling approximately 100 metres each day and testing dozens of different samples.

Alongside the ESA rover, NASA had originally planned to include its own – the Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Catcher (MAX-C). However, this was cancelled in 2011 due to budget cuts. The remaining program lays the foundation for the first Mars sample return mission, to be carried out in the 2020s.*

The New Horizons probe arrives at Kuiper Belt Object 2014 MU₆₉

After visiting Pluto and its moons in 2015, NASA's New Horizons probe began heading towards the Kuiper Belt – a remote ring of icy debris that surrounds our Solar System. The spacecraft performed a series of four manoeuvres in October and November 2015. These propulsions were the most distant trajectory correction ever performed by any space probe. New Horizons was now on course for a rendezvous with 2014 MU₆₉, a Kuiper Belt object located a billion miles beyond Pluto. It reaches this object in early 2019.*

2014 MU₆₉ was discovered in June 2014 by the Hubble Space Telescope. Based on its brightness and distance, it was estimated to have a diameter of 30–45 km (20–30 mi), with an orbital period of 293 years, low inclination and low eccentricity. This unexcited orbit meant that it was a cold classical Kuiper belt object, which likely had not undergone significant perturbations. Further observations in May and July 2015 greatly reduced the uncertainties in the orbit, making it a suitable target for New Horizons. The probe continues to study the Kuiper Belt region until 2022.*

The first mission to a gas giant using solar sail propulsion

Solar sail propulsion is a new method of space travel that requires no fuel, but instead captures the Sun's energy in the form of high-speed gas particles and photons. Known as the "solar wind", this stream of charged particles can be harnessed so that it strikes large mirrors, gradually accelerating a craft to extremely high speeds.

It was first demonstrated in 2010 with a 14m (46 ft) Japanese experimental probe called IKAROS. This passed by Venus at a distance of 80,800 km (50,200 mi). It was followed by a NASA spacecraft – NanoSail-D2 – in 2011.

Later in this decade, a much larger spacecraft is deployed, again by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). This measures 50m (164 ft) and is shaped like a flower. It features a hybrid propulsion method that combines sailing with an ion-propulsion engine, powered by embedded solar cells. The craft is sent to explore Jupiter and the nearby Trojan asteroids that share the planet's orbit.**

The first prototype Stratobus is launched

The Stratobus – developed by a collaboration of European investors – is a cross between a drone and a satellite. In some ways, it resembles Project Loon, a network of high-altitude balloons that Google has been developing. Unlike Project Loon, which is partially automated, the Stratobus is completely automated, with a longer lifespan and much wider variety of uses.

Operating in a fixed position for up to five years, the Stratobus is placed at an altitude of 12.5 miles (66,000 ft) – the lower reaches of the stratosphere. Each airship measures nearly 100 metres long and 30 metres in diameter, with a shell fabric made of braided carbon fibre. It has a payload capacity of 200 kg (440 lb), enough to carry a significant amount of scientific equipment, sensors and communication devices.* Power comes from solar panels that rotate in response to sunlight and energy storage is made possible by a light reversible fuel cell.

Stratobus offers a cheaper alternative to satellites, while also complementing the latter if need be. It can handle a diverse range of missions including observation, security, telecommunications, broadcasting and navigation. However, along with an explosion in the use of drones* and other unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) emerging around this time, concerns are raised over yet another layer of surveillance and spying with potential to intrude upon the lives of citizens.*

Launch of the BIOMASS mission

BIOMASS is a €400 million Earth Observation mission launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). It provides the first truly comprehensive measurements of global forest biomass. High resolution maps of tropical, temperate and boreal forest biomass are generated, using a radar sensor powerful enough to determine both the height and wood content of individual trees. These ultra-accurate maps help scientists address fundamental questions about changes in forest structure – especially in tropical regions, where ground data are scant. They also help put a figure on the carbon emissions resulting from deforestation and land-use change, making it possible to form better estimates of future climate change. The mission runs from 2019-2024.*

Credit: ESA/AOES Medialab

Europe's Galileo satellite navigation system is fully operational

Galileo is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) built by the European Union (EU) and European Space Agency (ESA). The €5 billion project is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. One of the aims of Galileo is to provide a high-precision positioning system upon which European nations can rely, independently from the Russian GLONASS, American GPS, and Chinese Compass systems, which can be disabled in times of war or political conflict.

When in operation, it uses two ground operation centres near Munich, Germany and in Fucino, Italy. In 2010, Prague in the Czech Republic was voted by EU ministers as the headquarters for the project. In 2011, the first two of four operational satellites were launched to validate the system. The next two followed in 2012, making it possible to test Galileo "end-to-end". Once this In-Orbit Validation (IOV) phase was completed, more satellites were launched, reaching Initial Operational Capability (IOC) in the middle of the decade. Full completion of the 30 satellites in the Galileo system (27 operational + 3 active spares) is achieved in 2019.* Europe now has its own independent satellite navigation capability.*

In addition to basic navigation services free of charge (giving horizontal and vertical measurements accurate to within 1 metre), Galileo provides a unique global Search and Rescue (SAR) function. Satellites can relay distress signals from a user's transmitter to the Rescue Coordination Centre, which then initiates a rescue operation. At the same time, the system provides a signal to the user, informing them that their situation has been detected and that help is on the way. This latter feature is a major upgrade compared to the existing GPS and GLONASS systems, which do not provide feedback to the user. The use of basic (low-precision) Galileo services is free and open to everyone. High-precision capabilities are available for paying commercial users and for military use.

Credit: Lukas Rohrt

Computers break the exaflop barrier

An exaflop is 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 (a million trillion, or a quintillion) calculations per second. The world's top supercomputers are now reaching this speed, which is a 1000-fold improvement over those of a decade earlier.* This exponential growth will continue for many years to come.

Personal computers are becoming ever more compact and sophisticated, with laptops and other mobile devices far outnumbering desktops.* Physical hard drives have become almost redundant, with most storage now done online using "virtual drives" in remote servers, aided by the growth in broadband speeds and wireless communications.

Web applications have reached startling levels of sophistication, especially where search engines are concerned. These not only find keywords in a search, but also interpret the context and semantics of the request, often with voice recognition software. Natural language processing had already begun to emerge some years earlier with Siri and other such tools. This form of AI, acting like a personal assistant, is now even more powerful and versatile.* Users can ask highly specific questions and receive detailed answers customised to their exact requirements.

Bionic eyes with high resolution are commercially available

Following years of trials, high resolution bionic eyes are now available for patients with degenerative vision loss. The first prototypes of this technology were somewhat crude and pixelated, with less than 100 dots of resolution. However, these new versions provide over 1000 dots, allowing patients to recognise faces and read large print.*

Bionic eyes continue to gain in sophistication over subsequent decades, making rapid progress in resolution and visual quality. Fully artificial eyes are eventually developed that actually provide better vision than healthy eyes. This leads even people with normal eyes to "upgrade" their sight.

A vaccine to treat melanoma

Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer, killing over 48,000 people worldwide each year. During the 2010s, attempts were made to develop an implantable vaccine to treat the condition. In preclinical trials, 50 percent of mice treated with two doses of the vaccine – animals that would otherwise have died from melanoma within about 25 days – showed complete tumour regression. The Phase I study involving humans was completed in 2015* with similar success. By the end of this decade,* after subsequent phases and approval by the FDA, it is available to the wider public.

A small, disc-like sponge – about the size of a fingernail and made from a biodegredable polymer – is implanted under the skin. This contains growth factors and components designed to activate and reprogram a patient's own immune cells "on site". By controlling their biology, it can instruct the immune cells to patrol the body and hunt for cancer cells, killing them. Although initially designed to target cancerous melanoma in skin, this method has potential in treating many other types of cancer. It also helps to lower the cost of cancer treatments, by shifting vaccine production from the laboratory to directly within a patient's own body.*

Connected vehicle technology is being deployed in a number of countries

Many of the world's cars are already linked to the Internet in some way. By 2019, another layer of technology is being added in the form of wireless connections between vehicles.* Using a combination of Wi-Fi and GPS signals, they are now able to alert drivers to potential hazards or obstructions. For example, if a car two vehicles ahead of the driver brakes, but the car immediately in front does not, this technology warns him/her with a loud beep and flashing red lights on the windshield to hit the brakes.

By communicating with each other and the roadway infrastructure, cars now have greatly improved safety, while traffic congestion and carbon emissions are reduced. In fact, the system is so effective that in some countries, accident fatalities drop by 80%.* It soon becomes mandatory, due to the obvious economic and safety benefits. This technology had already begun to appear on trucks, a few years earlier. Now passenger cars are using it too.

Automated freight transport

Autonomous rapid transit has already been in place at certain airports and on city metro systems. By 2019, it has begun spreading to public roads, with significant numbers of driverless trucks appearing.* These are capable of travelling hundreds of miles on their own, negotiating traffic and obstacles using advanced GPS technologies.

They have a number of advantages over human drivers – such as being able to operate for 24 hours a day without getting tired, never being absent, and not requiring a salary or training. The trucks can also detect mechanical or software faults. These automated vehicles will eventually include cars, taxis and other types of road vehicles, becoming widespread by the 2030s.

© Scanrail | Dreamstime.com

The U.S. government has passed historic legislation for asteroid mining

The U.S. government has passed historic legislation for asteroid mining, which allows citizens to own, transport and sell "any asteroid resource or space resource" obtained during commercial operations in space.

Credit: Bryan Versteeg / Deep Space Industries (DSI)

The U.S. Congress has just passed historic legislation (H.R. 2262), recognising the right of U.S. citizens to own space resources they obtain as property and encouraging the commercial exploration and recovery of materials from asteroids, free from harmful interference.

This legislation creates a pro-growth environment for the development of the commercial space industry by encouraging private sector investment and ensuring a more stable and predictable regulatory regime. The law is important for the industry and will be integral to supporting U.S. interests as the commercial space sector continues to expand.

“We are proud to have the support of Congress,” said Chris Lewicki, President and Chief Engineer of Planetary Resources. “Throughout history, governments have spurred growth in new frontiers by instituting sensible legislation. Long ago, the Homestead Act of 1862 advocated for the search for gold and timber, and today, H.R. 2262 fuels a new economy that will open many avenues for the continual growth and prosperity of humanity. This off-planet economy will forever change our lives for the better here on Earth.”

Eric Anderson, Co-Founder and Co-Chairman of Planetary Resources, said: “Many years from now, we will view this pivotal moment in time as a major step toward humanity becoming a multi-planetary species. This legislation establishes the same supportive framework that created the great economies of history, and it will foster the sustained development of space.”

Daniel Faber, the CEO of rival firm Deep Space Industries (DSI), also commented: “This is a very thoughtfully worded piece of legislation that is sensitive to the existing Outer Space Treaty, and yet moves the ball far forward in terms of giving companies like DSI the legal certainty we need to invest in capitally intensive missions and equipment.”

Previously confined to the realm of science fiction, asteroid mining has begun to seem like a serious possibility in recent years. Thanks to the entrepreneurial efforts of Planetary Resources, DSI and other firms, new technologies are being developed that could soon unlock the vast untapped metal and mineral wealth buried throughout the Solar System. In July of this year, Planetary Resources successfully deployed its Arkyd 3 Reflight (A3R) spacecraft from the Kibo airlock of the International Space Station (ISS). This test featured a number of core technologies that will be incorporated into future spacecraft. A larger and more advanced demonstration craft, the Arkyd-6 (A6), is now planned.

Eventually, these prototypes will be followed by probes capable of rendezvousing with Near-Earth objects (NEOs) identified as being rich in resources. They will deploy machines able to drill into rocks and extract their contents for in-situ utilisation (e.g. construction materials and rocket propellant) or return to Earth. Planetary Resources is confident it will begin commercial operations in the 2020s.

With sufficient commitment and long-term investment, asteroid mining could solve the looming resource shortage here on Earth. A single 500-metre asteroid could contain more platinum group metals than have ever been mined in human history. Establishing a solid legal foundation for the development of space resources is a necessary first step in opening the frontier. The new legal framework passed this week is essential for serious investment to occur in what may become one of the biggest industries of all time.

Massive Greenland glacier is melting rapidly

The huge Zachariae Isstrom glacier in northeast Greenland, which holds enough ice to raise global sea levels by half a metre, is reported to be melting and crumbling into the North Atlantic Ocean.

A glacier in northeast Greenland that holds enough water to raise global sea levels by over 0.5 metres has come unmoored from a stabilising sill and is crumbling into the North Atlantic Ocean. Losing mass at a rate of 5 billion tons per year, the glacier Zachariae Isstrom entered a phase of accelerated retreat in 2012, according to findings published this week in the journal Science.

"North Greenland glaciers are changing rapidly," said lead author Jeremie Mouginot, a project scientist at the University of California, Irvine. "The shape and dynamics of Zachariae Isstrom have changed dramatically over the last few years. The glacier is now breaking up and calving high volumes of icebergs into the ocean, which will result in rising sea levels for decades to come."

The research team – including scientists from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Kansas – used 40 years of data from aerial surveys by NASA's Operation IceBridge and satellite-based observations by multiple international space agencies (NASA, ESA, CSA, DLR, JAXA and ASI) coordinated by the Polar Space Task Group. The highly sensitive radar sounder, gravimeter and laser profiling systems, coupled with radar and optical images from space, monitor and record changes in the shape, size and position of glacial ice over long time periods, providing precise data on the state of Earth's polar regions.

"For the first 25 years, the glacier was stable," Mouginot says. From 2000 to 2012, however, it began to move more rapidly; and each year since 2012 it has tripled in speed. The leading edge where ice meets the ocean is now melting at a rate of two kilometres per year. There is "huge potential" for increasing the rate of global sea level rise in future decades, as it continues to flow into the warmer ocean, Mouginot notes. "Even if we have some really cool years ahead, we think the glacier is now unstable," he says.

Credit: J. Mouginot et al. / Science Magazine

The scientists found that the bottom of Zachariae Isstrom is being rapidly eroded by warmer ocean water, combined with growing amounts of meltwater from the ice sheet surface: "Zachariae Isstrom is being hit from above and below," said senior author Eric Rignot, Chancellor's Professor of Earth system science at UCI. "The top of the glacier is melting away as a result of decades of steadily increasing air temperatures, while its underside is compromised by currents carrying warmer ocean water, and the glacier is now breaking away into bits and pieces and retreating into deeper ground."

Zachariae Isstrom neighbours another large glacier to the north – this one named Nioghalvfjerdsfjorden – that is also melting rapidly, but is receding at a slower rate because it's protected by an inland hill. Combined, the two glaciers make up 12 percent of the Greenland ice sheet and would boost global sea levels by over a metre (39") if they fully collapsed. The entire Greenland ice sheet holds enough water to raise global sea levels by seven metres.

"Not long ago, we wondered about the effect on sea levels if Earth's major glaciers were to start retreating," Rignot noted. "We no longer need to wonder; for a couple of decades now, we've been able to directly observe the results of climate warming on polar glaciers. The changes are staggering and are now affecting the four corners of Greenland."

This week, the UK Met Office announced that global average temperatures for 2015 are likely to exceed 1°C above the pre-industrial baseline (if using 1961-1990 as the baseline, this point is likely to be reached by the early 2020s). That may sound like a small rise, but for an object the size of the Earth it's a vast amount of heat energy: roughly equivalent to four Hiroshima bombs every second of every day. The Arctic region including Greenland is warming twice as fast as the rest of the world.

This year, NASA began a new six-year field campaign, the aptly-named OMG (Oceans Melting Greenland), which aims to study ocean conditions around Greenland affecting the Ice Sheet.

G20 governments spend $452 billion a year subsidising fossil fuel production

A report by the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) and Oil Change International reveals that G20 governments are spending $452 billion annually to subsidise the production of oil, gas and coal – despite promising in 2009 to phase out these subsidies.

G20 governments are handing out $452 billion a year to prop up the production of fossil fuels – despite repeated pledges to phase out subsidies and prevent catastrophic climate change. A new report by the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) and Oil Change International has, for the first time, gathered detailed information on G20 subsidies to oil, gas and coal production.

In the report, "Empty Promises: G20 subsidies to oil, gas and coal production", researchers found G20 support to fossil fuel production alone ($452 billion) was almost four times the entire global subsidies for renewable energy ($121 billion). This support comes despite the declining returns in coal and new hard-to-reach oil and gas reserves, while ignoring scientific evidence that says three-quarters of proven fossil fuel reserves must be kept in the ground.

Report author Shelagh Whitley, from the ODI, said: "G20 governments are paying fossil fuel producers to undermine their own policies on climate change. Scrapping these subsidies would rebalance energy markets and allow a level playing field for clean and efficient alternatives."

The report, published ahead of the G20 summit in Antalya, Turkey (15–16 November), examines three types of G20 government support in 2013 and 2014 – the most recent years with comparable data. It looks at national subsidies extended through direct spending and tax breaks; investment by state-owned enterprises both domestically and internationally; and public finance extended through – for example – loans from government-owned banks and financial institutions.

The report's other key findings are:

• G20 governments provided almost $78bn a year in national subsidies for fossil fuel production; G20 state-owned enterprises invested $286bn, and public finance was estimated to average a further $88bn a year in 2013 and 2014
  
• China's investment in fossil fuel production at home and abroad, through its state-owned enterprises, far exceeded any other G20 country, amounting to almost $77bn annually
  
• The United States provided more than $20bn in national subsidies alone, despite calls from President Obama to scrap support to oil, gas and coal. Certain tax breaks in Alaska are so significant that, in the case of one production tax, the state is handing out more to companies than the tax generates in revenue for the state
  
• The United Kingdom stands out as the only G7 nation dramatically ramping up its support for the fossil fuel industry, with even more tax breaks and industry support handed out to companies operating in the North Sea during 2015. Recent changes to the tax regime (which are protected from future policy changes) now mean that UK taxpayers are effectively footing the bill for as much as half the costs of decommissioning rigs. Support is likely to increase through a legal obligation for the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change to "maximise economic recovery" of oil and gas. These new subsidies come despite diminishing budgetary revenues from the sector

At the end of September 2015, the U.S. and China jointly prioritised the establishment of a concrete deadline for the phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies as a key task during China's G20 presidency in 2016. In line with this momentum, the report recommends G20 governments adopt strict timelines for the phase out of fossil fuel production subsidies, increase transparency through improved reporting of fossil fuel subsidies, and transfer government support to wider public goods including low-carbon development and universal energy access.

Stephen Kretzmann, director of Oil Change International, said: "Continuing to fund the fossil fuel industry today is like accelerating towards a wall that we can clearly see. G20 leaders need to slow down and turn us around before we hit climate disaster."

In order to have a 50% or better chance of staying below the 2°C limit, the share of renewables must increase to between 65% and 80% of global electricity production by 2050, the report states.